Historical Roots of the Crisis in Darfur (1/2)

By: Taj Al-Sir Osman. The humanitarian, economic, health, and educational situation in Darfur has deteriorated significantly following the war of April 15, 2023, which led to the displacement of thousands of citizens, the destruction of infrastructure and vital state facilities, agriculture, and industry, in addition to genocide, ethnic cleansing, slavery, rape, sexual violence, and other ongoing war crimes. This deterioration is an extension of the crisis in Darfur that exploded more broadly during the Salvation era. In this study, we follow the historical roots of the crisis in Darfur. The main feature that distinguished the Darfur region from other Sudanese provinces is the independent origin of its Sultanate, to the extent that it can be said that the history of Darfur is a history of independence and national sovereignty. We note that the Sultanate of Darfur was not annexed to the rest of Sudan during the Turkish era until 1874 AD, meaning it lived for about ten years under that occupation before the Mahdist Revolution broke out, in which the tribes of Darfur played a significant role. Darfur remained independent during the Mahdist era along with the rest of Sudan for 13 years. Then came the British occupation of Sudan, and once again the Sultanate became independent during the reign of Sultan Ali Dinar, and was not annexed to the rest of Sudan until 1916 AD. 2. The second feature of the Darfur region is that its tribes and peoples witnessed a leap in their social development, carving their path from primitive societies based on hunting and gathering to agro-pastoral societies where land formed the basic pillar of work. The Darfur region was also home to civilizations and kingdoms such as the Daju and Tunjur kingdoms and the Sultanate of Darfur. If the measure of civilization is the emergence of ruling dynasties, agriculture, pastoralism, trade, industry, the establishment of cities and markets, and a written language, then the Sultanate of Darfur entered civilization in the Middle Ages through its widest doors. 3. Reflecting on the most important features of Darfur society in the Middle Ages, we notice that it was a cohesive society; the people of the region were able to provide their basic food from agriculture, animal husbandry, and hunting. They also provided the tools they needed through craft industries that flourished in the Sultanate. In fact, almost all imports were luxury goods that concerned the Sultan, his entourage, and the affluent wealthy and influential people, such as fine textiles, expensive perfumes, firearms, etc. If it is correct to use the contemporary expression, it can be said that the Sultanate of Darfur knew self-sufficiency. Darfur's sultans organized land ownership, as the Sultan considered all lands of the Sultanate his private property, dividing them into 'Hakuras' for his followers, and determining the land tax (Kharaj) or exemption from it in each case based on Islamic Sharia and customs (refer to the land documents published by Dr. Muhammad Ibrahim Abu Salim: 'Fur and Land', 1975). The establishment of the Sultanate was a critical turning point in the development of society from disparate tribes into a society where tribes began to merge on a social basis, and land was what united the tribes (the Hakuras). The society of Darfur was developing internally, like all societies contemporary to it in the Middle Ages, and was carving its way toward social development. We note the development of cities, markets, and social life (El Fasher, Kutum, etc.). After the spread of Islamic culture, Islam interacted with the local heritage in the region, leading to the emergence of Islam in Darfur in its distinct, tolerant form. The Arabic language also became a tool for writing alongside the Fur language, which remained the language of public life. Mosques and Khalwas (religious schools) spread, in addition to the travel of Darfur's sons to centers of learning in the Sennar Sultanate, such as Al-Damar, Al-Ghabash, and Katrang, as well as traveling to Al-Azhar in search of knowledge. Darfur was famous for its 'Riwaq' (dormitory) in Al-Azhar and the 'Mahmal Sharif' to Mecca. As for the judicial system, it was based on Islamic Sharia and local customs, and the Sultans of Darfur codified these customs into a law they called the 'Dali Law'. Darfur society was also characterized by cultural and linguistic diversity and the richness and fertility of artistic life in an agro-pastoral society, and the influence of land and animals on human life. Thus, Darfur society was developing internally according to its local conditions and characteristics, but where did the roots of underdevelopment or marginalization come from? 4. Roots of Marginalization: The Turkish occupation of Sudan (1821-1885) interrupted the natural and internal development of Sudanese society, and the Sudanese economy became oriented toward the outside or toward serving Muhammad Ali Pasha in Egypt, who was draining Sudan's economic and human capabilities to serve the goals of the regime in Egypt. This was a fundamental root of the underdevelopment of modern Sudan, despite its connection to the global capitalist market and the introduction of some fruits of the First Industrial Revolution to Sudan, such as railways, river transport, modern agriculture, the introduction of cash crops, civil education, civil judiciary, etc. The Turkish rule had devastating effects on the country, as it burdened citizens with taxes, injustice, and oppression. The effects of Turkish rule extended to Darfur after its annexation in 1874, and Turkish rule had its destructive effects on the Darfur region. Darfur witnessed its worst periods, as that era was characterized by looting and plunder, which the citizens called (Um-Kawakia), meaning looting, plunder, and chaos. Consequently, the peoples of Darfur were resentful of the Turkish rule's policies, which were characterized by oppression and taxes that were beyond the citizens' capacity, and the social fabric, which had been balanced during the Sultanate era, was destroyed. Citizens in Darfur lost their old world without gaining a new one. 5. The Mahdist Period (1885-1899): Thus, Darfur was fertile ground for revolution, and at the beginning of the Mahdist Revolution, the tribes of Darfur supported the revolution, which was one of the fundamental reasons for its victory. There were also opposition or separatist movements against Khalifa Abdullah, such as the revolution of Sultan Yusuf Ibrahim in January 1888 and the movement of Abu Jumayza against Khalifa Abdullah, which failed. The tribes of Darfur were subjected to repression just as other tribes were in the north, such as the Jaaliyin, Hamda, Habbaniyah, and Shukriya, etc. The conflicts that enveloped the region were among the reasons for instability and for the marginalization of the region and the obstruction of its development until the British occupation of Sudan. 6. The Period of British Rule (1898-1956): During the British rule, the Darfur region did not enjoy stability and development. From the beginning of that rule, Sultan Ali Dinar was able to restore the previous Sultanate (1898-1916). Fearing border conflicts with the French and Sultan Ali Dinar's support for the Ottomans in World War I, the British rushed to overthrow the Sultanate, and Darfur was annexed in 1916. However, the resistance of the Darfur tribes to the colonial rule was continuous, like the resistance of other Sudanese tribes in the north and south. Among the most prominent uprisings was the uprising of Abdullah Al-Sahini in 1921 and the independence of the Masalit Sultanate. 7. After the 1924 revolution and the general decline in the national tide, the system of Native Administration was introduced in Sudan and then to Darfur. The Darfur region was included in the 'Closed Districts' like the South, the Nuba Mountains, and the Southern Blue Nile, which increased and deepened its isolation and backwardness. The British imposed the 'Dagina' tax on the tribes and peoples of Darfur, a tax that was humiliating to human dignity. 8. During the colonial period, the region did not enjoy development projects, and colonialism perpetuated unbalanced development according to the interest of the colonizer, which aimed to turn Sudan into a large cotton farm to supply its factories in Lancashire with raw cotton according to an unequal exchange relationship. In this way, Sudan became linked to the global capitalist system, and cotton projects were established in the Gezira, the White Nile, El Fasher, Tokar, and the Nuba Mountains to serve that external goal. The policies of British colonialism were among the reasons that contributed to the marginalization of the region. We continue. alsirbabo@yahoo.co.uk The post Historical Roots of the Crisis in Darfur (1/2) appeared first on Sudanile.